Background Reading

In October 1347, Italian ships on the Black Sea en route to and from China dock in Messina, Sicily -- their crews are dead or dying. Whatever is killing them quickly spreads ashore. Within a month, it passes through Sicily and moves back out over water. By January 1348, it has penetrated France via Marseille and North Africa via Tunis, and by July 1348, it spreads through France, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Eastern Hungary, and Southern England. This is all the more amazing given that at this time it took a person one to three months to travel from London to Rome. The plague died out in the winters and was resurrected in the springs. At the end of 1349, it had spread throughout the British Isles and Scandinavia and continued to move east.

The death toll was massive -- the "official" figure is one-third of Europe dead between 1348 and 1351, when it temporarily abated, but keep in mind that in some towns the death toll was 90 percent -- in others 10 percent. Further, the poor and anyone else living in close quarters (monks, for instance) died at a higher rate. Many monasteries were completely wiped out, but the death rates among the nobility and the nobility of the church were very low. Understandably, people wanted to know why this was happening to them. Here are the four prominent hypotheses of the day:

The claim of academics and physicians: The plague was the result of a triple conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars on March 20, 1345.

The Roman Catholic Church's claim: God's wrath -- it was a punishment for the people's sins.

The claim of the mayors and town-controlling nobles: Poor sanitation. Dumping waste in the streets leads to sickness (a revolutionary claim at the time -- no one actually knew this to be true).

The claim of the masses (i.e., everyone else): The Jews are poisoning the wells.

Here is the "evidence" used by each group, respectively, to support its claim:

Medicine at the time was based on astrology and astronomy. Most physical sickness was attributed to poor alignment of the stars. The conjunction had happened, and it was a rare celestial event. Other events had been tied to celestial causes. Many were waiting to see what the triple conjunction would cause, and when the Black Plague occurred, they felt that they had found out.

The Church said, "Look around." Plunder, looting, rape, prostitution, war, and drinking were everywhere. God's wrath had shown itself in destructive ways before -- the people of Noah's time were hit with a flood, and the people of Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed.

The sanitation workers were among the first to die, and other diseases were suspected to be related to poor sanitation.

Christians tortured "confessions" out of Jews. The Jews were believed to be "jealous" of the Christians (because, it was thought, the Jews knew "in their hearts" that they were damned). The lepers had been blamed for poisoning the wells and causing the typhus outbreak in 1320 (after the Black Plague, it was believed that the Jews set them up to it).

Here are some problems people at the time saw with the evidence:

Nobody but the academics and physicians believed their explanation!

If God's wrath already has descended, there's no reason to change one's behavior. The attitude was roughly, "If we're already doomed, why alter our behavior?"

Later sanitation workers appeared to be immune (unknown to the people, they'd been exposed and had developed a resistance). If it really was poor sanitation, why weren't they still dying? In fact, this immunity among sanitation workers caused many people to think the sanitation workers had magical powers. People followed them on their street-cleaning routes, trying to absorb some of the immunity. Others, more desperate, actually applied waste to themselves, thinking that it would keep the disease away.

So many Jews died too (Why would any community poison itself?). The other problem is that the plague was present in areas where no Jews lived.

Sunday, February 22, 2009

The overuse of Religious Influence

1. Identify at least two logical fallacies in your chosen claim. It is not enough to state, for example, "Relying on Anecdotal Evidence." You need to identify the logical fallacy and explain how it applies specifically to your chosen claim.

Blaming the Jews for the Black Death is not only an act of ignorance but outright evilness. In fact, the phrase “poisoning the well” originated from the Black Death and was coined by John Henry Newman, who referred to this phrase as "a logical fallacy where adverse information about a target is pre-emotively presented to an audience with the intention of discrediting or ridiculing everything that the target person is about to say. Poisoning the well is a special case of argumentum ad homenem ” (http://www.The Fallacy Files.com: Poisoning the well [Assisted by Google search engine]). This type of fallacy is defined by philosophical society as “a common fallacy in which someone argues against a position or claim by assailing the proponent of it. The truth or falsehood of a position doesn’t depend on who does (or doesn’t) espouse it.” During this period in history, Christians were at the top of the religious hierarchy while Jews were at the bottom. With that being said, it is highly probable that the messages disseminated to society were along the lines of, “The Jews are the cause to this epidemic because they are jealous of us [Christians] and we were able to force confessions out of them. Besides, they cannot be trusted anyway, they are Jews.” To further the discussion of manipulative language through logical fallacies is the analysis of the use of prevarication by the Christians.

Another logical fallacy in the “Jews poisoned the wells” theory is the use of prevarication. It is highly probable that the Christians utilized prevarication techniques to pin the epidemic on the Jews. Since Catholics were high in the social hierarchy, their claim that the Jews were victims held weight in and out itself without any credible evidence. The rational mind might analyze the fact that many Jews were not immune to the Black Disease yet Christians were able to manipulate many in society with a racist theory using prevarication (http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Logical%20Fallacies.htm).

2. On what underlying assumption does the claim of your choice rely? What are your personal reactions to that assumption?

The underlying assumption of “The Jews Poisoned the Wells” is: “Christians tortured “confessions” out of Jews. The Jews were believed to be “jealous” of the Christians because, it was thought that the Jews knew “in their hearts” that they were damned. The lepers had been blamed for poisoning the wells and causing the typhus outbreak in 1320; after the Black Plague, it was believed that the Jews set them up to it” (Dana Milstein Plague Activity). From a contemporary viewpoint, the aforementioned causes for investigation are not nearly sufficient. These reasons for blaming the Jews are a blatant action of prejudice and discrimination. There ought to be sufficient “hard” or “soft” evidence pointing towards the Jews in addition to a systematic procedure for making such assumptions public. The reputation of the Jews was tainted by these remarks and hence, there should have been a more sophisticated process of law before these actions were taken. In brief, the Christians’ assumptions were bogus and should not have been published.

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